Economic Theory → Macroeconomics → Aggregate Demand and Supply
Aggregate Demand and Supply in Macroeconomics
Aggregate demand and aggregate supply represent critical concepts in macroeconomics, providing an overarching framework for understanding the overall behavior of economies. This analysis is used to derive multiple economic indicators, evaluate policy impacts, and comprehend macroeconomic fluctuations.
Aggregate Demand (AD):
Aggregate demand refers to the total quantity of goods and services demanded across all sectors of an economy at a given overall price level and within a specified time period. The concept encapsulates the expenditure intentions of households, businesses, government, and foreign buyers.
The aggregate demand curve plots the relationship between the total quantity of goods and services demanded (real GDP) and the price level. The AD curve generally slopes downward from left to right, indicating that as the price level falls, the demand for real GDP increases. This downward slope can be attributed to three main effects:
- Wealth Effect: As price levels fall, the real value of wealth increases, encouraging higher consumption.
- Interest Rate Effect: Lower price levels reduce the demand for money, causing interest rates to fall and stimulating investment.
- Exchange Rate Effect: A lower price level leads to a depreciation of the domestic currency, making exports cheaper and imports more expensive, thereby increasing net exports.
Mathematically, the aggregate demand function can be expressed as:
\[ AD = C + I + G + (X - M) \]
where:
- \( C \) is consumption,
- \( I \) is investment,
- \( G \) is government spending,
- \( X \) is exports, and
- \( M \) is imports.
Aggregate Supply (AS):
Aggregate supply represents the total output of goods and services that firms in an economy are willing and able to produce at different price levels, over a specific time period.
The aggregate supply curve can take different shapes depending on the time period considered:
- Short-Run Aggregate Supply (SRAS): In the short run, the aggregate supply curve is upward sloping. This indicates that as prices increase, firms are willing to supply more goods and services, often because higher prices can lead to higher profit margins given some sticky wages and input prices.
- Long-Run Aggregate Supply (LRAS): In the long run, the aggregate supply curve is vertical, representing the economy’s potential output or full-employment output, which is determined by factors such as technology, resources, and institutional structures. In the long run, prices are fully flexible, and output is determined by the availability of factors of production rather than the price level.
The short-run aggregate supply can be described by the following equation:
\[ Y = Y^* + a(P - P_e) \]
where:
- \( Y \) is the output (real GDP),
- \( Y^* \) is the natural level of output,
- \( a \) is a coefficient reflecting how sensitive output is to changes in the price level,
- \( P \) is the actual price level,
- \( P_e \) is the expected price level.
Equilibrium and Policy Implications:
The intersection of the aggregate demand and aggregate supply curves determines the macroeconomic equilibrium, where the quantity of goods and services demanded equals the quantity supplied. This equilibrium determines the overall price level and the real GDP.
Policies aimed at shifting the AD curve are known as demand-side policies, which include fiscal policies (changes in government spending and taxation) and monetary policies (changes in the money supply and interest rates). On the other hand, policies targeting shifts in the AS curve are supply-side policies, which could involve changes in regulations, taxes, labor market policies, and improvements in technology.
Understanding aggregate demand and supply is foundational for analyzing how different policies can stabilize business cycles, combat inflation, reduce unemployment, and foster long-term economic growth.