Linguistics > Pragmatics

Pragmatics is a subfield of linguistics that studies how context influences the interpretation of meaning in language. Unlike semantics, which deals with meaning derived from the linguistic content itself, pragmatics focuses on meaning derived from the interplay between linguistic content and the situational context in which it is used.

Contextual Factors

Pragmatics considers various contextual factors that can influence understanding, including:

1. Physical Context: The physical environment where communication takes place can affect meaning. For example, the utterance “It’s cold in here” may prompt different actions depending on whether it is said in a refrigerator or in a classroom.

2. Linguistic Context: Previous utterances in a conversation influence the interpretation of subsequent ones. Understanding a reference such as “she” requires knowledge of who has been mentioned before.

3. Social Context: Understanding the social relationships between the speaker and listener is crucial. Politeness levels, formality, and cultural norms all play roles in shaping how language is interpreted.

4. Temporal Context: The time when a conversation takes place can also affect meaning. Statements like “I’m going to the store” could be interpreted differently depending on whether it was said in the morning or late at night.

Speech Acts

An important concept in pragmatics is the idea of speech acts, which are actions performed via utterances. According to John Searle’s classification, speech acts fall into several categories:

1. Assertives: Statements that convey information, such as “The sky is blue.”
2. Directives: Commands or requests that seek to make the listener do something, like “Please close the window.”
3. Commissives: Commitments by the speaker to a future course of action, such as “I will meet you at 5 PM.”
4. Expressives: Expressions of the speaker’s psychological state, such as “I apologize for being late.”
5. Declarations: Utterances that bring about a change in the external situation, like “I now pronounce you husband and wife.”

Implicature

Pragmatics often deals with implicature, a term introduced by H.P. Grice to describe what is communicated beyond the literal meaning of words. Through conversational implicature, listeners infer additional meaning under the assumption that speakers are adhering to certain conversational maxims:

1. Maxim of Quantity: Provide the right amount of information.
2. Maxim of Quality: Provide information that is true.
3. Maxim of Relation: Be relevant.
4. Maxim of Manner: Be clear and orderly.

For example, if someone asks, “Can you pass the salt?” the literal meaning is a query about ability, but the implicature is a polite request for you to pass the salt.

Reference and Deixis

Pragmatics also studies reference and deixis. Reference involves how speakers use language to enable listeners to identify what the speakers are talking about. Deictic expressions (or deictic markers) such as “this,” “that,” “here,” and “now” are context-dependent and require shared contextual knowledge to be understood.

Conclusion

Pragmatics serves as an essential bridge between linguistic structures and their functional use in human communication. It delves into the nuanced ways context, speaker intent, and inferential processes contribute to our understanding of language, making it a critical area of study within linguistics. By exploring how utterances are interpreted in real-world contexts, pragmatics enhances our comprehension of the dynamic and interactive nature of communication.